Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc Case Study - 15

Car Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc - Case Study Example This provoked a gathering of the workers to document a case in the District Court. They contended that the strategy victimized the female sexual orientation and damaged Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc 1991). The region court and the court of bid conceded the respondents a rundown judgment on grounds that their fetal-security arrangement is sensibly important to advance the modern wellbeing concern (Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc 1991). The solicitors asserted that barring fruitful ladies from lead-uncovered employments, respondents arrangement makes a facial gathering dependent on sexual orientation other than underestimating them 703(a) of Title VII (Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc 1991). They asserted the strategy isn't impartial in light of the fact that it doesn't have any significant bearing to guys regardless of proof lead’s introduction presenting extraordinary damage to their regenerative fram ework. They refered to that, given that the fruitful ladies played out their obligations true to form, the organization has no option to isolate them. In spite of the fact that the respondents contend that, they are worried about the other coming generation’s status paying little mind to the law only being for the guardians (Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc, 1991). No, the organization doesn't fulfill its normal good and moral measures as required in the general public by passing an arrangement that criticizes the female sexual orientation. Moreover, it additionally abuses Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that shields all sexual orientations from separation (Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc 1991). By so doing, the organization would make a facial arrangement that uses sexual orientation to isolate ladies (Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls Inc 1991). The arrangement is additionally not unbiased and reasonable for both the two sexual orientatio ns and how the lead influences them. According to the organization, the lead influences just the female sex notwithstanding solid proof that it presents unfavorable consequences for the male conceptive organs.The law likewise refers to that, except if the pregnant representatives vary from others in their mastery, they should all get both equivalent treatment and openings

Use of Hopfield Networks as Analytic Tools

Utilization of Hopfield Networks as Analytic Tools Through the investigation of Sheikhan Hemmati (2011), it is seen that Hopfield systems go about as a methods for analysts to comprehend the preparing and recovery of memory in individuals (Sheikhan Hemmati, 2011).Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Use of Hopfield Networks as Analytic Tools explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More The purpose for this is associated with the idea of memory vectors which are used as a manner by which examples are conceptualized, recovered at that point hence sorted pull out so as to make a to some degree interchangeable example as its unique origination. As a scientific instrument, this causes specialists to more readily see how recollections are recovered and afterward consolidated to make the considerations and activities that we have at the present. What must be comprehended is that while intellectual brain science has empowered analysts and understudies the same to see how memory functions, there is as yet a ho le in information in having the option to see so to talk how recollections from a wide range of memory vectors are joined into what we know as memory. This is the place Hopfield systems become an integral factor, they are planned as a counterfeit neural system from which the contribution of substance using an assortment of learning rules are executed in order to see how they would be relevant in a human neural system. Through this, clinicians are better ready to comprehend the procedures that go into learning and possibly find new strategies that could assist with settling learning weaknesses or even improve the way toward learning in general. One potential hypothetical way to deal with this can be found in the investigation of Hsu (2012) which clarified that as logical apparatus, the Hopfield system can really be viewed as an ambitious start to the advancement of fake learning systems which might make an A.I. (Man-made brainpower) (Hsu, 2012).Advertising Looking for inquire about p aper on brain science? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Hsu (2012) clarifies this by expressing that after some time the procedures that go into formation of PCs will progressively endeavor to imitate the productivity and learning capacity of the human brain. All things considered, seeing how adapting really works is the initial step to making a fake neural system that is free from outside info and can only learn all alone. Other potential uses of the system can be found in the investigation of Menezes Monteiro (2011) which recommended that the discrete-time neural system proposed by Hopfield can be utilized for putting away and perceiving twofold examples (Menezes Monteiro, 2011). Through their examination, which researched the evacuation of reenacted neurons inside the system, assists with demonstrating how there is the potential for the utilization of the Hopfield model to possibly help in the restoration of people that e xperience the ill effects of memory misfortune as an immediate consequence of harm to some piece of their mind which would affect either their present moment or long haul memory. For instance, one model for understanding the procedures engaged with working memory is the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) multi-part model which expresses that working memory works by means of an arrangement of slave frameworks and a focal controller which oversees the transmission and coordination of data (RepovÃ¥ Baddeley, 2006). In spite of seeing how memory functions and is recovered somewhat, it is as yet obscure what procedures go into joining it to make what we are aware of as working memory. The Hopfield model assists with settling this issue by introducing a â€Å"rough sketch† of what we see of as a model of a neural system so as to comprehend that procedures may go into the individual memory vectors bringing about present day getting the hang of mechanisms.Advertising We will compose a custom research paper test on Use of Hopfield Networks as Analytic Tools explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More One case of this procedure at work can be found in the galactic outlines and models that are utilized to speak to the current day nearby planetary group. While they are not 100% precise regarding accurately indicating how the planets move, they do give an unpleasant estimate of positions and procedures in this way empowering a superior comprehension of the procedure overall. The equivalent can be said of Hopfield systems wherein analysts know that they are not a 100% exact strategy for understanding the complexities of neural systems and the procedures that go into them. In any case, by increasing a harsh thought of how such components work in any case, analysts can know how they work and through such disclosures empower the formation of progressively exact models and hypotheses with respect to the methods and techniques for human learning and memory creation. Na tural deficiencies The characteristic inadequacy of such a system however lies in the way that interruptions can, and frequently happen, and, therefore, it can't generally be expressed that Hopfield systems go about as a mirror for the affiliated memory components of the human mind. Then again, studies, for example, those by Liu, Huang Chen (2012) endeavor to clarify such interruptions by expressing that even in human memory, the recovery components are not 100% precise with the cerebrum filling in so to talk the evident holes that happen. It is this filling in process that Liu, Huang Chen (2012) partners with the interruptions inside Hopfield organizes as the system endeavors to conceptualize the underlying picture it needed to work with the scramble that occurred as it was forms through the system (Liu, Huang Chen, 2012).Advertising Searching for examine paper on brain research? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More The final product is a sort of filled in picture that depends on the system attempting to fill in the holes with what data it had accessible. Subsequently, for (Martinelli, 2010), the Hopfield arrange is a precise portrayal of a crude affiliated memory organize (Martinelli, 2010). Notwithstanding, it ought to likewise be noticed that the corruption of data in the Hopfield organize is additionally clarified examples, for example, the Ericsson and Kintsch (1995) model which clarifies that all people use gifted memory in regular undertakings anyway most these recollections are put away in long haul memory and afterward therefore recovered through different types of recovery components (Martinelli, 2010). At the point when these recollections are recovered there is no corruption and in reality the demonstration of day by day recovery really fortifies the memory. The Hebb learning rule endeavors to clarify this by expressing the learning (as found in people or on account of the Hopfield a rrange) happens as an immediate consequence of loads fortifying the recovery instrument. In this way, after some time and reiteration, the exactness of a recovered picture shows signs of improvement. Such is the situation with regards to Hopfield systems wherein day by day recovery of the memory results in a progressively exact picture. Hopfield Networks and Learned Behavior Based on the article Extended Hopfield Network for Sequence Learning: Application to Gesture Recognition by Maurer et al., it tends to be seen that Hopfield systems can be used so as to demonstrate what is known as realized activity. It is depicted as sets of movement that are found out dependent on perception and mimicry (for example shooting a ball, swinging a slugging stick and so on.). In any case, it must be addressed whether Hopfield systems are a precise portrayal of the brain’s learning conduct or on the off chance that it is only an obscure portrayal of how data is precisely raised and converted without hesitation. It is frequently the situation that individuals partner recollections as an assortment of neurons and neurotransmitters working related to one another so as to record relevant data consistently yet hardly any think about the manner by which the idea of memory can be practically identical to that of a library where data is put away, recorded and ordered dependent on its sort and qualities. On account of scholarly conduct, the use of Hopfield model as a methods for seeing how the cerebrum functions is appropriate on the off chance that we expect that memory vectors inside the human brain exist which bring about the recovery instrument of recollections. For instance, a memory vector can be considered as a hub which associates different recollections together that is used by a focal controller so as to make an unmistakable activity or picture. The activity of turning on a fixture would thus be able to comprise of a few hubs where viewpoints identified with vision, me chanical activity and getting a handle on are inferred and joined by the focal controller so as to make the movement of turning on a spigot. This can be found on account of the Hopfield systems wherein numerous hubs demonstration so as to duplicate the data/picture that was inputted into them. One manner by which the Hopfield model, as an exact model for analyzing the learning conduct of the human cerebrum, has endeavored to be demonstrated can be found in concentrates as those by Popescu et al., (2012) which clarify that the memory models, for example, those by Ericsson and Kintsch show that it is difficult to hold so to talk all recollections inside our working memory rather what happens is that people hold just a couple of ideas identified with an assignment inside their working memory and afterward utilize those as pointers to recover the data from long haul memory (Popescu et al., 2012). All things considered, the manner by which hubs inside the Hopfield model work are equivale nt to how memory recovery instruments work, all things considered, wherein what you consider as realized conduct is the consequence of joined data from different hubs which thusly bring about memory that is being looked for. Lamentably, studies, for example, those by Liu et al. (2011) show that while the Hopfield model may appear to be an exact model of how learning components

New MeisterTask for Gmail Turns Emails into Tasks! - Focus

New MeisterTask for Gmail Turns Emails into Tasks! - Focus We’re proud to introduce MeisterTask for Gmail, a free add-on that turns your emails into tasks at the click of a button. Move important to-dos straight into your task management system and reach inbox zero in a jiffy! MeisterTask for Gmail is a free add-on that connects your inbox with your MeisterTask account. Once you’ve installed and authorized the add-on, it appears in Gmail’s sidebar whenever you open an email. To use the add-on, simply click on the MeisterTask icon. Choose which project and section the email should be added to, then click ‘Create Task’. The subject line of the email will be turned into the task title, while the body of the email will be added to the task in the form of notes. You can modify both right inside the add-on if you like. Your email instantly appears as a task in the project board you’ve chosen. To visit MeisterTask and edit the task further, click on ‘View Task’. This opens the task dialog, where you can add an assignee, due date, checklist items, tags and much more. Click on the X in the top-right corner to close the dialog and view the task inside your project board. In the board, you can move the task from one section to the next to indicate its current status. How many sections your project has is completely up to you. In a growth experiment board such as the one pictured below, the task might move through four different stages until it’s completed. Tip: Using a section action, you can automatically keep stakeholders in the loop about your task’s progress. For instance, you could notify the person that sent you the original email as soon as your task is moved into the last section in your project, marking its completion. How to Install MeisterTask for Gmail The MeisterTask add-on is available for free in the G Suite Marketplace. Visit the G Suite Marketplace In the Marketplace, click on the Install button and then follow the installation wizard to authorize the add-on. After youve authorized the add-on, go to your inbox and open an email youd like to send to MeisterTask. The MeisterTask icon will appear on the right side of your inbox. Click on the icon to open the add-on and login to MeisterTask (you only have to do this once). Thats it youre ready to use the add-on! Take a look at this short demo video to see how it works: Get MeisterTask for Gmail now to turn important emails into tasks and ensure that important to-dos don’t get lost in endless email threads! Get MeisterTask for Gmail

Human Rights And Sexual Orientation - 2239 Words

Human rights and Sexual Orientation in Iran 1. Introduction This investigation examination fits in with a course of action of studies on human rights in Iran made by the Human Rights in Iran Unit. This study considers the Islamic Republic of Iran s consistence with and its commitments under universal human rights law concerning sexual orientation character and sexual introduction. The applicable bargains to which Iran is a State gathering are the International Covenant on Civil and Political and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The examination exhibits that Iran does not agree to its commitments under global human rights law in household law and in practice, as it efficiently abuses the privileges of people†¦show more content†¦These laws are distinctive for men or ladies and recognized on the premise. There is no reference to sexual introduction inside the laws however in practice this discipline could apply to acts by gay, lesbian, androgynous or transgendered (LGBT) persons for taking part in same-sex relations. 3. Relevant international standards According to Molavi (2005), out of nine center universal human rights arrangements, Iran is gathering to and legitimately bound by five of them. The bargains most pertinent to sexual introduction inside Iran are the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The United Nations bargain bodies, in particular, the Human Rights Committee and the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, aid with the understanding and improvement of the commitments forced by settlement procurements. As a State gathering to these bargains, Iran is legitimately obliged to maintain the rights cherished in that and can t summon inner law as support for infringement of these procurements (Cooper, 1995). Article 2(1) of the ICCPR and article 2(2) of the ICESCR oblige States gatherings to execute all procurements of these Covenants as per the rule of non-discrimination.19 While sexual introduction and sex character are not unequivocally said as reason for separation inside the Covenants, the Human Rights Committee20 and CESCR have avowed the

Critique of Crabb Hawkins - 738 Words

A Critique of Two Theories Betty Finney Liberty University COUN 507 Summary Dr. Crabb ‘s model integrates theology and psychology and refers to it as, â€Å"Spoiling the Egyptians (Crabb, 1977). His approach geared more to sound biblical principles and doctrine. I researched â€Å"Spoiling the Egyptians†, as to, I was curious about the scripture base. Spoiling the Egyptians refers to Exodus 12:40-42, as God watched over the Israelites as they went through the wilderness, and crossed over in the promise land. When the Israelites were hungry, God fed the manna. He spoiled them by giving them what they needed to be sustained. Up to a certain point, Dr. Crabb looked at psychology and theology going hand in hand with†¦show more content†¦The second phase consists of a process where the client and counselor share their belief system and try to come up with a plan to recovery. The third phase actually decides on a plan of recovery. The fourth phase consists of the client owning up to their responsibility and being held accountable for the pla n of recovery. Strengths and Weaknesses I agree with some of Dr. Crabb’s approach to counseling, but I totally agree with Dr. Hawkins model approach. In my opinion, portions of Dr. Crabb’s approach makes Biblical counseling at the basis of counseling. His thought process that psychology and theology goes hand in hand, gives the Holy Spirit to work in finding a recovery plan. My pastor always says, â€Å"The worse place to be is to be disconnected for the Power Source (God).† One of the strengths of Biblical counseling, such Dr. Crabb’s and Dr. Hawkins’ approach models is, that biblical counseling is most in line with a one on one teaching of the Christian faith. When I first became a Christian, I learned four valuable things. One, remember that God is always there. Deuteronomy 31:6 says, â€Å"Be strong and courageous. Do not be afraid or terrified because of them, for the Lord your God goes with you: He will never leave you nor forsake you.† Two, do a daily devotion because keep y ou in God’s word and strengthen your prayer life. Three, Get involved and stay connected with other believers. Four, talk to someone. Talking to someone will get the issues out inShow MoreRelatedEssay on Theory Critique: Crabb and Hawkins1241 Words   |  5 PagesTheory Critique: Crabb and Hawkins Liberty University Summary of the Content Both authors express many overlapping elements of revealed truth in regard to the process of counseling and the problems that are derived in the life of clients and people suffering from disorders and psychologically unhealthy mindsets. Hawkins utilizes a theory of 5 concentric circles defining the human psyche and physiology. Hawkins goes on to relay his theory of counseling that utilizes 4 phases in which the counselorRead MoreTheory Critique of Crabb and Hawkins Essay826 Words   |  4 PagesTheory Critique of Crabb and Hawkins Jeremy Poling Liberty University Integration Dr. Crabb suggests that there are four viewpoints to integrating spirituality and psychology. The first being â€Å"Separate but Equal† This viewpoint ascertains that psychology and spirituality do not mix any more than if a person needs a filling for a cavity or the excising of their wisdom teeth, they do not peruse the scripture for direction the person goes to a dentist. This view is not solid for its veryRead MoreChristian Counseling and Secular Psychology 1320 Words   |  6 PagesTheory Critique In our fast passed and ever changing society, personal experiences built up over time and often make life difficult to deal with over time. Everyone has their own prospective on what is important and how they will tackle various problems they face from day to day. It is the responses to our harsh environment and experiences that can often manifest into feelings such as: anxiety, resentment and possibly guilt (Crabb, 1977). It is those that have negative experiences in life thatRead MoreComparing Adams with Backus and Chapian1451 Words   |  6 PagesContrasting Crabb’s Effective Biblical Counseling with Hawkins Model For Guiding The Counseling Process Craig L. Rich Counseling 507 Dr. Evans Liberty University August 27, 2012 Comparing Theories 2 In this paper, I will discussing Crabb’s Effective Biblical Counseling (1977) and the Hawkins Model for Guiding the Counseling Process (n.d.). I will beginRead MoreTheory Critique1539 Words   |  7 PagesA Critique of Two Theoretical Models: Crabb and Hawkins Amy E. Yesalavich Liberty University COUN 507-B09 Dr. Alan Cheney May 27, 2012 Summary Psychology has been primarily viewed as a methodical system that seeks empirical evidence to explain nature, while theology is often viewed as reasoning based on man’s eternal destiny as discussed in biblical teachings. Falsities are held within both of these historical beliefs. PsychologyRead MoreCrabb Theory Critique1057 Words   |  5 PagesCrabb and Hawkins Theory Critique Sherrie Miller Liberty University COUN 507 201220 B03 January 29, 2012 Dr. Timothy Heck January 29, 2012 Introduction/Summary The integrative Christian perspective of Lawrence Crabb in his book, Effective Biblical Counseling is enlightening on the simplest level. The overall presentation and concept creates much introspection of motives, which threaten ones biblical thinking and behavior patterns that create relationship and personal problems. ThereRead MoreThe Integration of Christianity and Psychology3666 Words   |  15 PagesPersonal Theory Paper: Future Counseling Theory Paper Development and Structure of Personality (.5) Hawkins (2010) discusses five components that shape and influence the human personality; he refers to these components that diagram the self, as concentric circles. These components are comprised of the core, the body, the soul, the temporal systems, and the supernatural systems (Hawkins, 2010). Hawkins (2010) refers to the core as the innermost part of the self; it houses the Holy Spirit, and even sinRead MorePersonal Theory Paper3660 Words   |  15 Pagesthe development of my personal theory on Christian Counseling. I use many scriptural references to support my beliefs and stress the importance of gaining wisdom and knowledge from the bible. It incorporates all of the presentations, readings, and critiques I did at Liberty University’s Theology and Spirituality in counseling course. I talk about how I integrate Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality into my Christian counseling and believe that they all have a lot to offer the Christian counselor.

Beebo Brinker Free Essays

The society in which the Beebo Brinker series found its home during the late 1950’s and early 1960’s was an inhospitable one. While homosexuality was nothing new in the world at large, it had almost completely been repressed, especially in a Western cultured world that was not only steeped in Christian tradition, but also notably patriarchal. A masculine woman was called a tomboy, and she was expected to curb her tomboyish attitudes in time for marriage and child-rearing. We will write a custom essay sample on Beebo Brinker or any similar topic only for you Order Now Societal expectations consigned her to petticoats, which in the sixties had been downgraded to dresses and stockings. However, the desires of the woman to dress as comfortably as a man and perform the roles that were traditionally given to men were repressed during that time. While the desires of the woman to have more freedom were repressed, any homosexual tendency was crushed violently. While the violence of lesbian repression might not have been overtly performed, all the women (lesbian or not) were aware of the intense pressure put on anyone who held those feelings or performed those actions. Ann Bannon describes her own wretched experience during that time and the suicidal feelings that necessarily accompanied the tendency toward lesbianism in the 1960’s. She writes that while being in a gay bar in the evenings, she would have extreme fair of it being raided and of herself being taken to jail. She continues: â€Å"I had been extremely low profile, very proper, very Victorian wife†¦ I thought, ‘Well, that would do it. I’d have to go jump off the Brooklyn Bridge. ’ As easy as it might be if you were a young woman in today’s generation to think that was exaggerating, it wasn’t. It was terrifying† (Lootens, 1983, p. 12). The fear that society inspired in the lives of lesbians drove them to underground haunts and secret lifestyles that marginalized their existence in American society. This marginalization drove lesbians to the cities where people were much less concerned with the business of others as compared with small towns. In the Beebo Brinker chronicles, the big city referenced is Greenwich Village, and the life that Beebo leads after she finds the courage to â€Å"come out† to her gay roommate is possible only in that city. She uses the facilities that the relative anonymity of the city grants to lesbians—gay and lesbian bars and apartment life, and this facilitates the unleashing of her hidden desire for other women. The promiscuity that is possible even to heterosexuals under the blanket of city life is also granted to Beebo, and she becomes a butch character playing the role of the male in many short lesbian affairs. This butch/femme role is highlighted in the novels written by Ann Bannon, and Beebo falls staunchly into the butch role. She is described as being one who sits at the bar and lights up a cigarette, holding out the match to another woman expecting her to blow it out. This overpoweringly masculine role goes beyond the level of mere self-discovery into an assuredly male persona. Beebo (and others like her) are shown to have performed the search that many lesbian women must do, and have found and realized her deepest desire to act in that domineering manner toward women. In fact, this emphasizes the desire that these women have to for the feminine body—not to be feminine but to command the sexual love of the feminine woman. This concept of the butch/femme role is, however, a stereotypical one, as many homosexual women find elements of both types within their characters and personalities. This fact highlights the stereotypes that have been propagated concerning lesbianism. Beebo Brinker does serve to facilitate some stereotypes that were cast concerning lesbians. The butch/femme stereotype is one of the major ones upheld in the series. The re-release of the books highlights this stereotype, as Beebo is portrayed as a beautiful yet muscular and domineering woman even on the cover. The cartoon-like nature of the picture (which enables the caricature) further serves the purpose of the stereotype. Yet, the book also depicts the nature of the woman who was confined to living a closeted lifestyle. The fears, frustrations and anxieties Bannon depicts transcends the stereotypical evil and satanic creatures that homosexuals were taken for in that society. It depicted them as human beings who suffered on account of the feelings they had, and the feelings that society had toward them. In this way, the novels attacked some of the negative stereotypes that society had of lesbians. The literary form of the novels falls into the category of popular fiction. These have been compared to the Harlequin and Mills Boon romances that many consider trite and sentimental. However, the feelings and problems dealt with (however tersely) in Bannon’s books were never as tidy as those in novels expressing heterosexual love. The characters in Bannon books were often forced to relinquish the loves that they desired and return to the oppression of traditional life. Even in the Beebo Brinker tales (where lesbianism was more embraced by the title character), lesbians were never able to rid themselves of a social stigma that would oppress them regardless of their success in finding happiness in love. These complexities of life are revealed in the Beebo Brinker novels, and this allows them to transcend the level of the trash novel and to become a historical artifact. Works Cited Bannon, Ann. Beebo Brinker. San Francisco: Cleis Press, 2001. Lootens, Tricia. â€Å"Ann Bannon: A Writer of Lost Lesbian Fiction Finds Herself and Her Public. † Off Our Backs. Vol. 13, Iss. 11, 1983. How to cite Beebo Brinker, Papers

Reflection of Consultancy Project

This document has been created to acknowledge the completion of the project, which focused on brand development opportunities and alternative market strategies for the national banjo manufacturing company. The project specifically targeted its subsidiary. It is a premium quality British manufacturer. Its brand name is known as the ‘The Shackleton Brand.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Reflection of Consultancy Project specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Following a brief summary of the company and its key strategic objectives, we presented the findings on the current consumer expectations and potential customer groups in the ‘Market Survey Results’. Short term, medium term and long term goals were presented with the support of ‘The Future Timeline’ and ‘The Model of Strategic Growth’ for ‘The Shackleton Brand’. I applied the Customers Focus and Innovation Mod ule when I used the 7P’s for marketing. It was the main part my allotment in the project with regard to ‘The Shackleton Brand’ development. My contributions to the team included developing possible brand images and slogans for the company. I used the two modules that I took in the MBA, which include the Brand Now Module and the Consumer Brand Module. Literature Review Theoretically, the concept of reflection was initially proposed by John Dewey when presented an approach of thinking about the experiences one has undergone in practice. According to Dewey (Redmond 2003, p. 9), the process of reflection is able to make an individual understand the reasons and causes behind the outcomes that were once considered unclear and unsettled. Dewey held that the higher-order practice could be achieved by integrating theoretical ideas with observations derived from experience.  The model of reflection was built from the accumulation of thought emerging from several authors. The concept of reflection was developed further through Mezirow’s seven levels of critical reflection. Mezirow’s seven steps start with the creation of awareness about what is happening and conducted through observation (Redmond 2003, p. 16). It is followed by feelings about what one perceives in the occurrences of taking action. The third step is evaluating whether the feelings and perceptions are objectively aligned with reality. The fourth step involves evaluating the usefulness of values associated with different perceptions of the experience. The first four levels deal with consciousness of action, outcomes, and feelings. From the fifth to the seventh level, they deal with aligning the concepts used in learning with the understanding of outcomes.Advertising Looking for essay on project management? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Redmond (2003, p. 16) refers to the process as meta-learning. In the fifth leve l, the learner judges the adequacy of the explanations and values found in the fourth level. In the sixth level, the learner assesses how he has used intuition in the areas that provide inadequate information. In the seventh level, the learner identifies the influence of cultural, psychological, and social pressures on his/her judgment (Redmond 2003, p. 17). The process helps the learner to judge the objectivity of his/her judgment.  The concept of reflection has also been developed through the works of other authors such as Freire, Brookfield, Habernas, and Schà ¶n. Most of the steps involved in the reflection process are repeated by different authors. Brookfield has outlined five levels that cover the seven levels described by Mezirow (Redmond 2003, p. 21). Schà ¶n’s process of reflective practice describes six levels of carrying out the reflection process (Redmond 2003, p. 37). There is a higher form of similarity of the steps outlined by different authors. I feel that identifying the surprise result is important because it is the essence of experience. Schà ¶n’s reflection process highlights the need to identify the surprise result (Redmond 2003, p. 37). That which does not align itself with theory should be studied repeatedly to find ways of developing a strategy on how to respond to it when it occurs another time. Schà ¶n’s fifth step involves inventing a strategy that will help the practitioner to deal with the surprise outcome if it happens again. In the sixth step, known as reflective practice, the practitioner tries out the new strategy (Redmond 2003, p. 37). I feel that Schà ¶n’s process offers the learner an opportunity to find out whether outcomes match theoretical models. Whether they match or not, they offer the learner an opportunity to form a strategy to deal with similar situations in the real business environment. According to Schà ¶n (Redmond 2003, p. 34), a learner was supposed to learn by working side b y side with the practitioner and reflecting on his/her experiences. In the case of modern learning, most of the learning process occurs in the classroom in the form of theoretical models that simplify evaluations. I consider a case like this one important in developing a strategy to deal with a real business consultancy process.  I find that the Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle is simplistic in understanding the stages that a learner undergoes in the reflective process. It was developed by Graham Gibbs in 1988 (Moon 2013, p. 73). It is considered an extension from David Kolb’s four stages of carrying out the reflection process created in 1984.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Reflection of Consultancy Project specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More I noted that some of the stages outlined in the Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle are similar to the ones described by the other authors. Gibbs discussed six stages that simplify the reflection process for the learner. In this paper, I have used the Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle as a requirement as well as for its simplicity. I have also tried to align the stages I underwent in completing the project to the Fisher’s Transition Curve. Fisher’s Transition Curve was first presented to the 10th International Personal Construct Congress held in Berlin, in 1999 (Amory 2011, p. 277). I found out that Fisher’s Curve is appropriate to match my feelings with theory at different stages of the project. It is effective, especially when trying to do something for the first time. I experienced anxiety because I considered the national banjo manufacturing company a large client. Probably, it has received better reports from more experienced consultants than us. The feelings changed after meeting the client because they expressed that they had great expectation on our findings and recommendations. They did not perceive us as inexperienced rathe r than a group that can offer new findings and recommendations. In carrying out the market survey, I experienced the feeling of a threat. My knowledge was that the market survey requires a lot of resources in terms of statistical skills and funds. For a more complicated study, we would have needed to reach a certain level of respondents to be considered of statistical significance. My stage of gradual acceptance occurred when we decided to work out with data that we were able to collect. I felt that every voice derived from the customer matters, even if it is not geographically distributed. It may turn out to be a reflection on most areas. I will have the ‘moving forward’ feeling in case I am required to complete a similar project. Description of events One of the important events was project planning. The team agreed to document a considerable amount of words every week to avoid the problem of lateness in completing and submitting the report. The final compilation of t he report was made from the pieces of material that were created during the previous weeks. Another advantage of documenting pieces in the week in which they occur is that memories are clearer when they are documented in a period not longer from the occurrence of the events. However, reflection requires someone to take time away from the events. The combination of the two considerations helped us to have facts the way they had happened as well as allowing us time to separate from events in order to carry out an objective reflection of outcomes and expectations.Advertising Looking for essay on project management? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of our team members, we Z accepted the role of assisting Daisy. Daisy had the problem of creating her part of the report. Z revised all of Daisy’s part in depth with regard to the language problem. Daisy had a weakness in expressing her thoughts. In this part, I realized that project planning and recognizing constraints to project completion are essential for a successful project completion. I consider the project successful because it was completed within the schedule, the quality was verified as good, and the cost was minimal. The main event in the project was the market survey, which we conducted in the city centre. I learnt how to approach people, who I was meeting for the first time. There were two options which we could have used to form groups for the survey. In one, we could have divided ourselves into two groups and go to different areas of the city. In the other option, we could have worked as a single group and choose dif ferent spots in the city at different times of the day. In these approaches, we wanted to increase the number of people who accepted to become respondents to our survey. Increasing the size of a group increases credibility, but it reduces the speed of conducting the survey. In order to balance the trade-off between credibility and speed of completion, we choose to conduct the survey as two groups in different parts of the city at different times of the day. I realized that there was a challenge in this event when a considerable number of people refused to take part in the survey as respondents. A good introduction with a new respondent increased the chance of conducting a good survey. I resolved to encourage the team to recognize that the market survey is the most important part of our project. I made them understand that different people have different reasons for refusing to be interviewed or to fill-in a questionnaire. They could be in a hurry. Others could perceive that the ques tionnaire is too long for their valuable time. We had to review reasons on why people could refuse to be interviewed. We resolved to consider the fraction of the sample that accepted to be our respondents. We considered the data collection process a success provided that those who accepted were a good fraction of the total number of those who were requested. The team tried to do this task perfectly by asking more than 1000 people in the market using the face to face data collection method. Each member on the team asked more than 200 people. The team got favorable responses from around 200 people. Data from more than 160 respondents were valuable to the project. In solving the challenge, we had to put ourselves in the shoes of the consumer and to answer how the survey would be important to the consumer. The first thing after introducing ourselves to the consumer is that they ask themselves how the survey will be beneficial to them. We had to develop a favorable response to the questi on to increase the number of people accepting to take part in the survey. We used a common response where we replied that the company was seeking to increase the standards of customer service and its product based on the views of the consumer. The consumer usually asks the question internally. As a result, it is necessary to give out the benefits of the survey to the consumer immediately after the introduction without expecting them to ask the question aloud. When we went to the streets to find out about the popularity of the brand, we realized that we had to recognize the target market. In other words, we could obtain a skewed result if we targeted a group different from the brand’s market niche. Our best strategy was to seek potential customer areas, such as streets aligned with pubs, studios, and other entertainment-related spots. We also sought the opinion of the general public to enable us to find out if there was a difference in perception between the sophisticated cust omers, who are more informed about musical instruments, and those who rely on general knowledge. Feelings I felt anxious as we started because I had to learn that people will respond differently to the same situation based on their interpersonal skills, knowledge, experience, and social and cultural background. One of my experiences is to try and understand what makes team members act differently to the same situation. I formed an opinion of working in a team. I have to accept that my ideas are not always superior. I have come to understand that I have a superior perception of my own abilities. I also learnt my nervousness when we conducted the market survey. I realized that my weaknesses in some areas were being reinforced by the strength of others in the field. I believed my analysis skills were superior. I came to realize that as a team sometimes you have to allow the other team members’ idea to be tried out, even when you think you have better ideas. Members democraticall y agreed on the best approaches and ideas.  In the market survey, I felt that we had inadequate resources to carry out a meaningful survey. Our numbers as a group were few and we did not have the ability to carry out interviews to cover a large geographical area. I knew that if the data had to be tested statistically there was needed to find out the influence of demographic factors that affect consumer behavior such as age, and consumer sophistication. A more complicated form of survey should seek to analyze the individual and environmental determinants of consumer decision-making as discussed in the Consumer Brand Behaviour Module. The consideration of carrying out a survey that accurately captures the determinants of consumer decision-making appeared very extensive to me before we started planning for the survey. I felt relieved when the group resolved to base the study of a few factors.  The effect of working as groups during data collection helped me to reduce the anxiety of approaching people who are not known to me. As a marketer and a student in the business field, I felt that I must get used to approaching new people by controlling my anxiety. I believe that the entire team had a good experience with the market survey, which was the main part of our project. It was a good opportunity to improve our interpersonal skills by interacting with other people directly. Conducting the survey gave us useful experience in dealing with customers in the future. The market survey also contributed to establishing a good project environment, as the experience helped us to understand the situation better. It enabled us to develop better relationships in the team and to understand the customer.  I advised Daisy to ensure that the company’s future value chain was clearly presented in the final report. I also supported Linz by editing the work after completing the design. I felt that as a team we had to succeed by supporting each other. There was the need to create balance to avoid covering tasks that were assigned to others. However, we needed to complement each other with our strengths in areas of our weakness.  Beyazit was very supportive and contributed numerous creative ideas to the project team. I was actually a little worried about him at the beginning of the project because of my previous experience with him in another project. Later, I realized that Z is a hardworking person to have as a team member. I am certain that he was not the problem in the previous project. He supported the team by coordinating meetings with the client and the mentor. He also did a very good job of revising the entire report in a short amount of time. It felt good to acknowledge the good work that every member of the team contributed towards the successful completion of the project. Acknowledgments should follow the completion of every task that forms part of the whole project. Members needed encouragement on a daily basis. Evaluation and analysis Dai sy made a good contribution to the team, despite having communication problems. She came up with several good ideas for the project team, such as the CSR and value chain components. The most important thing was that she was very considerate to everyone. I believe that she did her best to produce good work for the team. In return, the team accepted her and was generally happy with her efforts. Si Lin was the most creative member of the team. She is a hard-working person and has a good personality that makes you want to work with her again. She provided the project with good branding ideas, which was the main part of our project. I also really appreciated her efforts in designing the whole report. I regard her as the main individual who helped us deliver a high-quality work to the client.  With regard to my experience on the project, it was a good opportunity to improve my skills in working as a team and with different cultures. In addition, I improved my time management skills by r especting the other team members’ time and completing the work on time. I also supported the team by contributing creative ideas; for example, I gave Z an idea for the Product Life Cycle Model. From it, he was able to draw the continuous life cycle by providing new versions of the product.  I believed that everyone on the team had different capabilities and that each individual on the team needed to put in the same amount of effort into the project. Based on that view, I think that everyone on the team should receive the same recognition because the best project outcome was actually the result of a well-coordinated teamwork.  In analyzing separate parts of the project, I will start by a reflection on the market strategy that we provided for the client. We used the competitive advantage theory, where we examined whether the firm could pursue a low-cost advantage, differentiation advantage, or combinations of low-cost and differentiation. The combinations commonly form the five generic competitive strategies. The low-cost strategy and the differentiation strategy are evaluated in line with the value chain analysis. The firm offers superior products and it was appropriate to recommend ‘differentiation with low-cost advantage’ as a long-term competitive strategy. Our first process was to check if the brand has applied the concepts discussed in theory. Most managers are aware of the theoretical concepts and may apply them. However, they need to be reconsidered from time to time for the firm to incorporate best practices that are emerging in the industry. Some of the best practices may emerge from a different industry or sector. For example, in the automotive industry, Toyota emerged with a reduced setup time and reduced inventory that enabled it to gain a ‘differentiated low-cost’ competitive advantage. The JIT system has been adopted by firms that are not found in the automotive industry. Our first step was to investigate wheth er all relevant best practices have been applied. There were areas where the firm left out a best practice because it sought to control costs. In such areas, we weighed and evaluated the impact of the decision to the customers and the subsidiary’s revenue.  When we looked at differentiation, the brand has done a good job by allowing customized banjos. For example, the banjos can be made available in different colors and varieties, such as the Banjitar. It also offered products that supported its core business, such as The Shackleton’s mugs, sweaters, and beer. We suggested that the brand could subsidize some of the supporting products that appear as an alternative to promotions. A product such as a sweater would appear closer to the people when worn by someone in a group or a crowd. It would stay longer in the minds of the people who see it than a television advert. However, it would reach fewer people. Support products have to be identified with a distinction of qua lity and be relatively low-priced. At that point, it was important to estimate the effectiveness of the product differentiation strategy used by the brand. I recognized diagnosis as a part of the consultancy process. The Product Life Cycle Model enabled us to identify whether the brand should expect a high growth rate in sales or a reduction. The brand follows the organic growth model. An expected reduction would mean that the brand needs to re-energize, which can be done by reducing production costs to lower product prices. It may also mean stopping the production of non-essential products and focusing on those that generate considerable amount of revenue. In choosing products to focus on, the brand should choose products that offer a competitive advantage to the brand. The banjo product life cannot be considered a mature product, even though it has stayed on the market for a long time. A mature product should expect a decline in sales after a period of great popularity. I felt tha t the ‘The Shackleton Brand’ had not reached its period of great popularity and increased profitability, which invites new entrants and intense rivalry from other firms. In the brand development, I realized that the brand is mainly recognized for its quality products supported with a several years of warranty for customers. They are also recognized for being British-made products. We asked ourselves about the perception that the brand wanted to last longer in the mind of the customer. As described in the Enterprise Cultural Heritage theory, a better approach is to choose what the customers selected as the most outstanding factor in The Shackleton’s banjo products. We had already listed several factors that we thought were outstanding, such as being British-made. We knew customers could pay a premium price for banjos manufactured in the UK rather than those from emerging economies that rely on low labor cost. Another aspect is their durability, which is part of th eir guaranteed quality. We had to list several factors and leave out an open point for any other factor that the customer feels is outstanding about The Shackleton’s banjos.  When we looked at the 7Ps of marketing, we realized that the brand had done well with the product, price, people, process, and place. However, firms cannot remain static on price because competitors always try to reduce the price. It is also the most visible part of gaining a competitive advantage. The brand could increase visibility by enhancing its physical evidence. It could partner with firms in the entertainment industry to feature in the most elegant entertainment scenes in the country. People are likely to associate elegance with the highest standard of quality. I recognized value chain analysis as an important tool in identifying areas for improvement that may provide the brand with a competitive advantage. In general, models enabled us to make a quick assessment of the situation. We were left with adequate time to focus on creative developments because the models had enabled us to sort out potential areas of weaknesses in a short time. We also made use of the consultancy process. Our strategy was to highlight alternatives and allow the managers of the brand select the best options. In areas where they had applied similar alternatives, we had to go back to investigate and assess their effectiveness to the brand. The consultancy process requires that we leave the client with the ability to continue without us, but also creates space for our future involvement if the need arises. Conclusion and Action Plan From the experience, I realized that people have different capabilities. Working together as a team, it was necessary to identify the strengths and weaknesses of individual members early to use it for the benefit of the team. It would have been a bad experience if we were to give a team member with a weak statistical background the role of leading the market survey. We ne eded one of us to guide us in designing the questionnaire and what to look for in the answers that we collected. Daisy was appreciated, despite having a weakness in communication, because she had areas that she performed well. I realize that a team can perform better when members are able to align themselves with their strengths in each task. For example, Daisy would have a problem with interviewing an individual with great language capabilities. On the other hand, she provided great ideas that helped the group in deciding what to look for in the survey. I have learnt that what actually matters is the team members’ genuine efforts in making the team successful. I learnt that I should not use prejudgment in my perception about my team members. In the future, I will treat each task as a separate challenge to reconsider the strengths and weaknesses of team members. For example, my previous experience with Beyazit made me to consider him as a point of weakness in the team. The pe rception changed once we started carrying out different tasks and assigning each other sections of the new project for leadership. I felt anxious when we started collecting data in the survey, but the presence of team members assured me that my weaknesses are covered. It helped me to feel confident in approaching new respondents. The most important point is managing differences in personality and abilities for the greater good of team performance.  In the market survey, I realized that statistics is an important topic in business similar to other subjects. I have always overlooked statistics in business studies, as a student. I need to do more by myself to increase my abilities in applying statistical tools to collect meaningful data. Some of the data collected may not reflect the population because the data collection method is not statistical. Usually, I expect a survey to use more resources than we employed. The most important resource is statistical skills. I have realized tha t models present a simpler way of assessing the brand strengths, weakness, opportunities, and threats. However, models are easily imitated by rivals. As part of the team, I felt that systemic thinking may be one of the tools for us to use in developing recommendations. It is possible to emerge with something new that may make the brand the industry leader in something uniquely applied. I also realized that using models sometimes give an indication that everything has been done in the right manner. In that case, I should look at what can be continuously improved over time. Continuous improvement provides a way of gaining competitive advantage by making small improvements that gradually accumulate into a greater advantage. Another alternative that I will start with as a consultant is benchmarking. I will check what competitors are doing that makes them succeed. If they are weaker, it will be effective to understand how they do it, so that I can tell my client to avoid taking a similar approach. Beating rivals first requires that you reach the benchmark, before you seek to exceed that which is already in practice by others. The challenge found in benchmarking is that detailed information about competitors is usually inaccessible. It creates a need to imagine the linkage between what can be seen and what cannot be accessed. In the future, I will need to make estimates and probable alternatives that competitors have been using in areas that they have excelled. I will also need to identify what makes others fail in the industry. Sometimes firms have a customer focus mentality, but they fail to recognize that one of the 7Ps refers to its employees. Motivating employees works for the good of the customer. In a rapidly changing business environment, competitors quickly adopt the best practices. Satisfying the customer does not end only what they can be seen. As a consultant, I should seek to identify the latent need of the customer. It is described as something that th e customer would want done, but they think it is not achievable at the time. Surpassing the customers’ expectation has become the new form of customer satisfaction. A better alternative to assessing our project is that it should be rated against the work done by a consultant for the same brand. Expert judgment on our work is necessary because clients may have less technical knowledge or are more demanding. We could be assessed more strictly against a benchmark set by an existing consultant without realizing that we employed different levels of resources.  In making recommendations, I realized that the client will be interested in our alternatives only if they do not increase his cost or when they actually reduce his costs. If they reduce his costs, they have to be those which will not compromise employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction.   Sometimes customer satisfaction is based on a trade-off between the quality and the price. More differentiation helps to satisfy customers with different perceptions and expectations about quality and the price. Some care only about functionality at a lower price. Others are willing to pay a premium price for customized products. As a consultant, I need to identify who the firm targets by its product in order to carry out a good analysis and make effective recommendations. Sometimes, the firm can increase its revenues by expanding the target groups. Reference List Amory, D 2011, Essential knowledge for personal coaches, Lulu Press, Raleigh. Moon, J 2013, Reflection in learning and professional development: theory and practice, Routledge, New York. Redmond, B 2003, Reflection in action: developing reflective practice in health and social services, Ashgate Publishing, Burlington. This essay on Reflection of Consultancy Project was written and submitted by user Bradley Compton to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

In 1930-1935, Max Dupain created a black and white photograph titled Eggs Essays

In 1930-1935, Max Dupain created a black and white photograph titled Eggs Essays In 1930-1935, Max Dupain created a black and white photograph titled Eggs Essay In 1930-1935, Max Dupain created a black and white photograph titled Eggs Essay Max Dupain focuses intensely on the establishing the perfect lighting technique to create the right mood and texture that the eggs appear to possess. Using the shy but strong light source he highlights the eggs fragility and delicacy. He has also used high contrasts of black and white to better differentiate the diverse, opposing colours and tones, generally, the blacks and the whites. Dupain positions the eggs in a way to create a patterned shadow to reveal more of the precise detail gone into the making of the artwork. With the remarkable positioning of the eggs, Dupain has also placed the eggs on harsh, abrasive wooden boards, to further place emphasis on the insubstantial texture of the eggs. As a final point, Dupain has used, in particular, the lighting, high contrast and positioning of the eggs as techniques to expose the eggs to their highest point. With all these techniques and methods, he has taken a bunch of everyday objects like the cup and egg to give help us form a whole new perspective on it with the careful control of the image. In the foreground of the painting steadily lays five randomly-positioned chalky white eggs. Their flawlessness and polished surface is achieved by the well-planned lighting and the contrast of the two different textures. Their shadow creates a pattern similar to that of a cloud. This effect makes the eggs appear even more small, frail and light because they appear to drifting on the cloud. To the top left of the eggs is a small, round cup, with no handles. The opening of the cup is relatively the same size of an egg. The crisp shadow of the cup is stretched out to reach one of the eggs, suggesting a feel of connection between the egg and the cup. The eggs and cup are both placed on a series of wooden planks. The wooden boards are rough, coarse and callused, and the eggs are unblemished and brittle. These two conflicting textures appear so contrasted next to each other, their texture is more accentuated because they both appear so varied. The diagonal planks of wood also appear as a form of leading lines, as their diagonal positioning leads to the eggs. The connection between the eggs and the wood are emphasized by the patterned shadows. Around the top two corners, the tone is very dark, and most of the area is covered by black. The high viewpoint is quite unique to what we normally see with most artworks. This may be because they want to get the shadows and their strength in well to associate with the rest of the other objects. This high viewpoint also helps us to communicate more with the object, because he is exposing the subject more as he reveals the whole and larger image with the viewpoint. More ground is covered with that viewpoint rather than what we would see in a normal picture, with the lower, straight on viewpoint. The tones in the artwork are very contrasted, they are all very different from one another. Because of the lighting, the tones are sharper, stronger but look atmospheric. There are a range of tones, but the main two are obvious, clearly stated within the eggs and cup and the shadows and the darkness of the table boards. The tones also help to achieve the effect of purity of the eggs, because of the distinction between the lighter and the darker tones. There is a limited amount of colour in this photograph. They contribute to the contrast of the blacks and whites and appear organic and natural. The eggs are of a warm, china-white colour, creamy colour. The greys and browns promoted by the table have a staggering effect on the eggs. Each colour brings out the next because they are all very unalike. They do, however, blend into one another, yet strive to distinguish. The lines in the photo are very fine and minute, particularly covering the eggs, adding to the fine, delicacy of their appearance. The lines are not as dominating as the colours are. Max Dupain has not focused as much on the accuracy and positioning of the lines as he has with the lighting, and highly contrasting colours and tones, etc. The shapes in Dupains photo are curved, oval and rotund. Mainly due to the shapes of the eggs and cups and their shadows. However, the rectangular shape of the wooden planks also, again contrast to the shapes of the eggs. There is much contrasting and differentiating with the two opposite textures, shapes, colours and tones of the eggs and the table. The shadows formed by the eggs are patterned. The constant curved shape and bump of the egg makes the shadow appear continual and ongoing, symbolising eternity, perhaps. The eggs are placed in front, closest to the viewer and the cup is directly above it, closer to the background. The light has been accurately and cleverly used and planned so that the end product really reveals its intended effect. The light source is from behind the cup and eggs, used to create the sharp shadows. The eggs and cup are proportioned to be of similar size. The perspective of the artwork is higher, from normal artworks to fit the image intended within. This photograph has been evenly balanced. The heavy, strong dark shadows in the left hand side, particularly in the top balance out with the multiple eggs and their shadows. The focal point of the artwork would be the eggs. The diagonal wood planks lead toward it and so does the shadow from the cup. I think the artwork symbolises a variety of different moods and emotional issues. It is all really based on Max Dupains strive to change the view of an everyday object into a more sophisticated and appealing image. The photograph helps to expand on its original image into a photo of simplicity and originality to create a mood of serenity and tranquillity. This photograph changes and twists everyday objects to help form our respect for them. Max Dupain also tries to bring out the effect of how eggs can also be a form of life. Suggested by how the human life starts, Dupain tries to accumulate a feel for what eggs can also mean, besides breakfast. I think the way he has really dramatically distorted our image of an egg is what is best about this photograph. I think the artwork is surprisingly, unsuccessful. Despite my high opinions of it, I think the majority of people think of this artwork as just a bunch of eggs with a cup on a table. To me, it means much more and that much more effort and work has been done to create what the end result is. Although some might agree with me, the majority dont. Nobody would be as interested in it for the pure reason of it being tedious and pointless; my more negative and superficial opinion. When I first saw the photograph, I had a more bland and shallow idea of it than what I think about it now. I just thought of it as a more plain and simple photograph. After analysing and studying it, it appealed to me more and I saw it as a more meaningful and original photo than I had before. The artwork makes me feel stable, calm and pleasant. The picture is appealing and creates an effect of calmness so it is the general mood I experience. The objects within the picture seem to communicate with the viewer, all characterised by all the techniques used by Dupain. The painting reminds me of how looks can everyday stereotypes can be deceiving and how somethings whole image can be changed, with just a little focus and concentration. The eggs symbolise, to me five delicate, fragile, lives in search for its meaning.

How Economists Use Total Factor Productivity

How Economists Use Total Factor Productivity Conceptually, total factor productivity refers to how efficiently and intensely inputs are used in the production process.  Total factor productivity (TFP) is sometimes referred to as multi-factor productivity, and, under certain assumptions, can be thought of as a measure of level of technology or knowledge. Formula for TFP Given the macro model: Yt ZtF(Kt,Lt), Total Factor Productivity (TFP) is defined to be Yt/F(Kt,Lt) Likewise, given Yt ZtF(Kt,Lt,Et,Mt), TFP is Yt/F(Kt,Lt,Et,Mt) The Solow residual is a measure of TFP. TFP presumably changes over time. There is disagreement in the literature over the question of whether the Solow residual measures technology shocks. Efforts to change the inputs, like Kt, to adjust for utilization rate and so forth, have the effect of changing the Solow residual and thus the measure of TFP. But the idea of TFP is well defined for each model of this kind. TFP is not necessarily a measure of technology since the TFP could be a function of other things like military spending, or monetary shocks, or the political party in power. Growth in total-factor productivity (TFP) represents output growth not accounted for by the growth in inputs. - Hornstein and Krusell (1996). Effects on TFP Disease, crime, and computer viruses have small negative effects on TFP using almost any measure of K and L, although with absolutely perfect measures of K and L they might disappear. Reason: crime, disease, and computer viruses make people AT WORK less productive.

Answer questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Answer questions - Assignment Example Starting a project requires definition of what the project is required to accomplish. A project starts with an idea them the vision that must be associated with the vision of the business. Project charter acts as the starting point where it established the foundation of the project. This must include the business needs and the deliverables to be executed. All the stipulations must be tied up to roles and responsibilities of the project development team. Human and material resources must be well defined (Goldratt, 1997). Often, an organization must put more efforts in estimation of the cost of the project in the chartering stage. The risks affecting the projects are also considered and their effects to the duration and cost of the project evaluated. The benefits and cost estimates must be supported using consistent approaches which provide realistic estimates for both costs and benefits. The establishment of the vision of a project in accordance with the project charter facilitates the success of the project. The project charter must corresponds to the business case put across to demonstrate that the project is viable and will assist in achieving the financial, employee and customer goals. The project chartering phase allows for establishment of an effective process that identifies and resolves various issues and actions that arise during the project development process. The chartering process forms the first step in execution of Lean project (Leach & Lawrence, 2005). Getting the sponsors and management to sign is normally difficult. Only one person is required in championing the project and passing it around. A good charter must be in a position to offer a written documentation that efficiently approves the launch and the requests of the efforts in project planning. Furthermore, the documentation of the project charter allows for collaboration of the major stakeholders and improves the deliverables. This must fairly represent the views of major

Purchasing power parity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Purchasing power parity - Essay Example bsolute purchasing power parity to distinguish it from a related theory relative purchasing power parity, which predicts the relationship between the two countries relative inflation rates and the change in the exchange rate of their currencies (Wikipedia, 2006). It is important in international economics for at least three reasons. First, it provides a particularly simple theory of exchange rate determination: it predicts that, if the relative price of two currencies is flexible, then it will adjust to equal the ratio of their price levels. Second, if this kind of adjustment does not take place, the ratio of price levels can nonetheless provide a reference point against which the current exchange rate can be deemed to be "under- or over-valued" relative to its PPP level. Finally, irrespective of whether PPP will ever occur in practice, deviations from it must be taken into account in making international and interregional comparisons of real income (Neary, 2004). The theory assumes that the actions of importers and exporters, motivated by cross country price differences, induces changes in the spot exchange rate. In another vein, PPP suggests that transactions on a countrys current account, affect the value of the exchange rate on the foreign exchange market. This contrast with the interest rate parity theory which assumes that the actions of investors, whose transactions are recorded on the capital account, induces changes in the exchange rate (Suranovic, 1999). Although earlier studies, like Froot and Rogoff (1995) had reported evidence of short run violations, many economists as Mc Donald (1996), Wu (1996) and others still hold the view that over the long run, relative price may move in proportion to the nominal exchange rate so that the real exchange rate will revert to its parity. Hence, it becomes important to test PPP as a long run relationship. PPP theory is based on an extension and variation of the "law of one price" as applied to the aggregate

Essay --

The rabies virus is a zoonotic disease that attacks the nervous system, leading to acute encephalitis and eventual death. Rabies is spread most commonly through contact between saliva from an infected host and the open wound of a victim, in the form of a bite. However, infection from the contamination of any mucous membrane, including the eyes and mouth, with infected saliva is also possible ("How Is Rabies Transmitted?†). Once transmittance has occurred, the virus uses the peripheral nervous system, or the â€Å"nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord†, in order to reach the central nervous system (â€Å"Peripheral Nervous System†). During this time, known as the incubation period, the virus exhibits little to no symptoms in victims, including the ability to infect others through saliva contact ("The Path of the Virus."). The incubation period is determined by the specific length the virus has to travel to reach the brain. Subsequently, larger ani mals may experience longer incubation periods ranging from weeks to months. Once rabies reaches the central nervous system, rapid viral replication results in encephalitis, as well as the first outward symptoms. These symptoms include increased aggression, excessive drooling, disorientation, seizures, and hydrophobia (Harris County Public Health). During this time, the virus begins being secreted by the saliva glands. Unlike the incubation period, the active period is relatively short; most symptoms appear within three to five days after the incubation period, and death usually occurs within seven days after exhibiting symptoms ("The Path of the Virus."). As a result of the rapid neural degradation, rabies is nearly incurable after the onset of symptoms. The rabies virus has the ... ...in China at the time (Schiller). Due to their low medical funds, underdeveloped and developing countries have difficulty dealing with local rabies epidemics. Though rabies is still prevalent in many countries today, it has little pandemic potential. Simply, rabies has nearly been eradicated in developed countries in the last several decades, present only in isolated cases. Though underdeveloped and developing countries continue to battle rabies, the issue is more of a concern for medical funds than for rabies itself. If developing countries had the potential to purchase rabies vaccinations and promote population control legislations, then rabies would be eliminated worldwide. The fact that developed countries have lowered rabies rates to near-nonexistence is proof of possible worldwide eradication. Rabies is an issue of the past, and it has no place in the future.

Philosophy of the Mind Essay

Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason Introduction The Critique is a treatise on metaphysics. Kant defines metaphysics as â€Å"a speculative cognition that is wholly isolated and rises entirely above being instructed by experience. It is a cognition through mere concepts (not, like mathematics, cognition through the application of concepts to intuition), so that here reason is to be its own pupil† (xiv). This remark alone indicates that the attempt to answer the question â€Å"How is metaphysics as science possible?†, places the question of the bearing of our empirical judgments on objects qua ontologically independent. Patently, that does not imply that the transcendental deductions will not have any ultimate bearing on such issues. It means nothing more or less than that the transcendental deductions are concerned with the question of the mere possibility of pure a priori judgments – i.e., how it is possible that we are cognitively capable of making synthetic a priori judgments at all – as an independent problem in its own right. The results of the investigation would provide the basis for a subsequent series of investigations into the bearing such judgments have or could have on ontologically independent objects independent of perception and judgment of them. But it is a simple matter of first things first – let us first see what transpires when we attempt to draw on our indigenous cognitive resources alone. The treatise is accordingly a â€Å"propadeutic† and a â€Å"preparation† and a â€Å"treatise on the method† for an ultimate system of pure reason (xxii). The first Critique is about finding the mind in nature hence nature’s dependence on that mind. The second Critique then shows us what efficacy that mind can have in actively shaping at least one aspect of nature — the phenomenal self. Although, this shaping of the self through reason has a wider impact in that through freedom, we gain a new perspective on the entire phenomenal world, the world of nature and value. That said, it is not a small matter to describe in such specificity and detail the particular faculties or powers of the mind. It seems plausible that by granting a mind-dependent nature, a different accounting for that nature could be constructed; the mind and its faculties could be sliced and diced in different ways than does Kant, although then we would be different creatures entirely — something Kant does not rule out. (For Kant, clearly, a creature with a different mental make-up could experience a different nature from the same things-in-themselves.) Given his particular recipe for the mind, Kant’s theory of freedom and morality reveals numerous things we can say about the faculty of reason. Kant begins by setting reason, which is not merely a receptive but an active faculty, apart from everything to do with physical or sensory matter, but he must ultimately find a way to unite it with matter, in the form of experience, in order for there to be freedom since, perhaps oddly, freedom as we think of it can only exist in the context of its lack — determinism. That we might see these realms as disparate only reflects a failure to take Kant’s mind-dependent construction of nature at its word. The answer to many of the apparent impossibilities many find in Kant’s theory of freedom is to see freedom not as an attempt to marry freedom and nature, but rather to marry reason (as author of freedom) and the understanding (as author of nature). Through reason’s law-imposing nature emerge moral entities — indeed, a phenomenal moral realm — and through the understanding (and sensation) emerge objects of nature — a realm of nature. If we take nature (as we experience it) as in any way a given, or even if mind-dependent, as somehow prior to freedom, the impossibilities are impossible to avoid. An Intelligible Faculty Understanding, reason and judgment are most often described, as faculties, that is, as faculties of the mind. Kant appears to distinguish between the passive (sensibility), the empirically conditioned but active (understanding) and the unconditionally active (reason). (575) From this we see that reason is unique among the faculties as being both wholly intelligible and active. Immediately we also see that, from one point of view, the problem of freedom is simply the problem of reason: how can an unconditionally active mental power that is outside space and time be efficacious with respect to that which is in time? How can the purely rational mind cause something? â€Å"Pure reason,† Kant writes, is â€Å"a purely intelligible faculty [that] is not subject to the form of time.† (579) As such, we can have no direct experience of it — other than the bare awareness found in the Fact of Reason. (Our psychological experience of ourselves is as appearances, not as things in themselves.) Pure practical reason is what comprises the intelligible will because it is the faculty that underlies all maxims (or actions) determining that will. Although it is law-giving (this is how it is active), it does not impose particular laws, that is, laws with empirical content, for to do so would remove its purely intelligible and a priori status. Rather, all it can offer is the form of a law. We see an example of this in the Categorical Imperative, with its admonition to test a maxim by universalizing it. It could perhaps be argued that reason simply is the intelligible will; or rather, that the intelligible will is reason. Yet the foundation of freedom, as Kant frequently points out, lies in the noumenal realm of which we can cognize nothing. Only pure practical reason can fit the bill with respect to freedom (Neiman, 1994, p.62-7). Logical Reasoning How does the reason we encounter in its logical guise lead to the reason that produces the problem of freedom, and the other troublesome ideas of the Dialectic? Reason’s logical role as the faculty of inference is perhaps its most celebrated aspect. Here, as elsewhere, its raw material is not the empirical object/sensory manifold but the unifying law or principle that, through inference, reveals some knowledge of an object to us, for example, in the simple syllogism.[1] Kant uses this kind of reasoning from which to extract reason’s guiding principle — its primary characteristic. He argues that â€Å"in inference, reason endeavors to reduce the varied and manifold knowledge obtained through the understanding to the smallest number of principles,† (361) revealing that reason is seeking â€Å"the highest possible unity,† but that this is â€Å"not the unity of a possible experience, but is essentially different from such unity, which is that of understanding.† (363) He ultimately reaches the following principle of reason: â€Å"to find for the conditioned knowledge obtained through the understanding the unconditioned whereby its unity is brought to completion.† Thus, Kant has traced the genesis of the â€Å"supreme principle of pure reason† that ultimately yields the transcendental ideas, and distinguishes reason’s role from that of the understanding (373). This also lies at the basis of Kant’s distinction between reason’s logical and transcendental, or â€Å"real,† use where reason is a the source of concepts and principles â€Å"which it does not borrow either from the sense or from the understanding.† (356) It is this principle of reason and what it yields that Kant then spends the major part of the Dialectic testing and examining, concluding that the principle itself appears sound, but warning of its seemingly unavoidable misuse. His way out, ultimately, is to fall back on the regulative-constitutive distinction: Thus pure reason, which at first seemed to promise nothing less than the extension of knowledge beyond all limits of experience, contains, if properly understood, nothing but regulative principles†¦But if†¦they be misunderstood, and treated as constitutive principles of the transcendent knowledge, they give rise, by a dazzling and deceptive illusion, to persuasion and a merely fictitious knowledge, and therewith to contradictions and eternal disputes. (730) As we have already seen, this seemingly intractable position is itself resolved in favor of freedom via another distinction that is tightly linked to (if not emerges out of) constitutivity-regulativity — that between theoretical and practical — which reintroduces the possibility of a valid use of constitutive reason. In the entire faculty of reason only the practical can provide us with the means for going beyond the sensible world and provide cognitions of a supersensible order and connection, which, however, just because of this can be extended only so far as is directly necessary for pure practical purposes. (706) Thus pure practical reason’s principle takes in us the form of the moral law as the ultimate principle that strives systematize and unify our rules of action (our maxims), just as it sought to unify the rules of nature. And, like the principle we found to be at the root of logical reasoning, this law lies a priori in pure practical reason. Pure or Absolute Spontaneity Kant frequently describes freedom as pure or absolute spontaneity. He also ties freedom to reason and reason to spontaneity. As Kant also points out here, the understanding, as reason’s close cousin, if not identical twin, is also a faculty of spontaneity, but it is one that is limited by the requirements of possible experience and so applies itself to appearances. For the understanding, that which is given (sense, sensation) drives the production of nature, and the understanding’s spontaneity is what allows us to think any object of cognition, regardless of its actuality.[2] Thus, the understanding, which gives us nature, does not and cannot suffice to give us freedom precisely because it is too shackled to sensation and experience. For reason, unrestricted in the practical realm by the â€Å"is,† allows us to create moral entities (through creating the morally situated self), that is, reason as law-giving, as pure spontaneity is also freedom. A Given Nature Among the things that Kant’s various descriptions of reason tell us, is that it has a certain nature (that is, characteristics or features) that endows it with inevitable tendencies or drives. We become aware of these faculties or powers through what we do, and what and how we think, and of course we act and think by virtue of the faculties. (574) This nature appears to be given and, as such, it seems (at least from what Kant says of it) that it cannot be further explained nor analyzed. Of course, this nature is essentially our nature as rational beings. Kant frequently appeals to the nature of reason in explaining why it is that we seem always and everywhere inevitably ask the questions we ask (and draw the often erroneous conclusions we tend to draw about the world): There has always existed in the world, and there will always continue to exist, some kind of metaphysics, and with it the dialectic that is natural to pure reason. (xxxi) They [transcendental ideas] are not arbitrarily invented; they are imposed by the very nature of reason itself, and therefore stand in necessary relation to the whole employment of understanding. (384) Guyer finds Kant’s appeal to nature with respect to reason problematic, arguing that that â€Å"idea that our freedom itself is actually a product of nature† is paradoxical because â€Å"what is merely natural is precisely what would seem to be unfree rather than free.† (2000, p.375) Conclusion Kant insists that freedom has a central role in his philosophy; that freedom and its metaphysics are wholly bound up with the metaphysics of nature; and that at the root of both is the mind. Kant’s Critical corpus is built on the fact of our having minds composed of certain faculties or powers, passive (receptive) and active (spontaneous or even causal), which Kant analyzes based on the manner and matter of the experiences they yield us. Clearly, even if everything about reason upon which my case for understanding Kantian freedom is based is true, what seem to be antecedent assumptions about the mind and its faculties arguably remain unproven, and perhaps improvable. Since so much of what Kant argues makes up the mind is labeled intelligible — the faculty of reason for one — it seems we are still left, at the end of the day, with an even more crippling Kantian unknowability than that met with earlier. This unknowability covers that which is the foundation of the theory, and Kant could be accused of being more dogmatic than the dogmatists in asserting such a starting point. Yet, on another view, there are no â€Å"antecedent assumptions† in Kant’s theory about the mind, since it is precisely the make-up of the mind that the critical system is intended to uncover. This is at least part of Kant’s point when he argues we must consider having objects conform to our faculties of cognition, rather than the other way around — his famous second Copernican revolution (xvi-xvii). On that view, nature is a reflection of the mind, and so an investigation of nature is for Kant simply an investigation of the mind. The Hume: Mitigated Skepticism and Skeptical Conclusions Introduction Hume’s biographer, Ernest Mossner, offers this pertinent insight on Hume’s religious skepticism: How can we recognize [Hume’s] personal convictions on religion? The answer is plainly that we cannot—certainly not without considerable effort on our part and even then not definitively. The conclusions of a sceptic—even a mitigated sceptic—cannot be summarized in a one-two-three pattern or creed if for no other reason than that a sceptic, unlike other types of philosophers, is not altogether stable in his thinking, is perpetually rethinking his principles. Scepticism, first and last, is a frame of mind, neither a collection nor a system of doctrines. (Mossner, 1976, p.5) This section will demonstrate just how restless and inquiring Hume’s skepticism was in his An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. In the Enquiry’s first section, Hume compares those who attempt to indoctrinate their religious dogmas to thieves who are unable to win a fair fight (that is, honestly persuade men to believe their delusive message) and who will then hide behind superstitious â€Å"intangling brambles to cover and protect their weakness.† Chaced from the open country, these robbers fly into the forest, and lie in wait to break in upon every unguarded avenue of the mind, and overwhelm it with religious fears and prejudices. (i, 11) Hume concludes the Enquiry’s first section by expressing the hope (indeed his intent) that his philosophical skepticism â€Å"can undermine the foundations of an abstruse philosophy, which seems to have hitherto served only as a shelter to superstition, and a cover to absurdity and error.† (i, 16) Although Hume is always careful to state that he is fighting dogmatism and â€Å"religious superstition†, it is not difficult to see that in the early sections of the Enquiry this amounts to anyone who believes that they possess knowledge of God. The easiest way to see the Enquiry’s skeptical pattern of reasoning is to see that Hume wages war on religious dogmatism on two fronts. The first front is in the early sections of the Enquiry where Hume will mount a general assault on abstruse metaphysics and dogmatic theology with his account of â€Å"true metaphysics† (i, 12), which is an understanding and application of the general principles of human nature. The second front is in sections x and xi where Hume launches particular attacks on theistic bastions of revelation and natural theology. General Assault: True Metaphysics We must first determine whether God is a possible object for human understanding. The first test for the idea of God is â€Å"from what impression is that supposed idea derived?† (ii, 22) The answer must be â€Å"none†, for we can find no vivid and forceful impression corresponding to that abstract and complex idea, â€Å"God†. Thus, if God’s existence is an â€Å"object of human reason or enquiry† (iv, 25) then God’s existence must either be a relation of ideas or a matter of fact. Clearly, God’s existence is not a â€Å"Proposition†¦ discoverable by the mere operation of thought, without dependence on what is anywhere existent in the universe† (iv, 25). God is a being—indeed the Supreme Being—so if God exists. His existence must be a matter of fact. â€Å"All reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to be founded on the relation of Cause and Effect.† (iv, 26) Knowledge of God (the original cause) thus must arise from causal knowledge. For Hume there are only two types of causes: particular and general causes. So God, the original cause, must either be first particular cause or the highest general cause or principle. Particular causes are the constant conjunction of two species of objects found in phenomena. God’s uniqueness precludes the possibility that God can be a particular cause: It is only when two species of objects are found to be constantly conjoined, that we can infer the one from the other and were an effect presented, which was entirely singular, and could not be comprehended under any known species [i.e.. Nature] I do not see, that we could form any conjecture or inference at all concerning its cause [i.e., God]. If experience and observation and analogy be, indeed, the only guides which we can reasonably follow in inferences of this nature; both the effect and cause must bear a similarity and resemblance to other effects and causes, which we know, and which we have found, I many instances, to be conjoined with each other. (xi, 148) In the Enquiry Hume also rejects as impossible a knowledge of God, the ultimate general cause or principle: It is confessed, that the utmost effort of human reason is to reduce the principles, productive of natural phenomena, to a greater simplicity, and to resolve the many particular effects into a few general causes, by means of reasonings from analogy, experience, and observation†¦ Elasticity, gravity, cohesion of parts, communication of motion by impulse; these are probably the ultimate causes and principles which we shall ever discover in nature; and we may esteem ourselves sufficiently happy, if by accurate enquiry and reasoning, we can trace up the particular phenomena to, or near to, these general principles. (iv, 30) Hume limits the human understanding to knowledge of common life and experience (xii, 162). Clearly, however, God transcends human experience, so God cannot be an object of the understanding. Since the idea of God does not arise from the understanding, it must arise from some other faculty. Hume analyzes the idea of â€Å"God† (an infinitely powerful, wise and just entity) and shows that â€Å"God† is generated by the imagination through reflecting on human capacities and faculties and expanding them infinitely (ii, 19; and vii, 72). Hume’s general assault is directed against speculative metaphysics and dogmatic theology, which believes that God can be known by humans. And nothing can be more requisite than to enter upon the enterprize with thorough care and attention; that, if it lie within the compass of human understanding, it may at last be happily achieved; if not, it may, however, be rejected with some confidence and security. (i, 15) Particular Arguments for Theism From a religious viewpoint, Hume’s â€Å"true metaphysics† can be read as an assault on any dogmatic belief in God. In Enquiry sections x and xi Hume focuses his attack specifically on Theism (or one could be even more specific and say â€Å"Christianity†). In these two sections, Hume mounts an attack on the two pillars of Christianity: revelation and natural theology. Hume argues that neither revelation (reports of miracles) nor natural theology (the Design argument) can yield a belief in God that a reasonable man would assent to. By â€Å"reasonable man† here, Hume means the man who follows his â€Å"natural unprejudiced reason, without the delusive glosses of superstition and false religion† (x). As it can be seen from Hume’s argument in Enquiry x, he attempts to undermine the reasonableness of a belief in reported miracles1 using four lines of reasoning. First, â€Å"miracles† are violation of laws of nature. Any belief-system (secular or religious) must take as its foundation that there are inviolable laws of nature. Therefore, it is inconsistent to have a belief-system that is based on the testimony of miraculous events occurring. Miracles can thus never serve as the rational foundation for any belief system. Second, even if we knew miracles occurred, this would only establish a supematural entity who through â€Å"particular volitions† intervenes in nature and history. But miraculous events are useless in establishing what kind of supernatural power (or powers) it is that caused such events. This argument cannot establish whether the supernatural power is wise, foolish, or capricious. Or for that matter, this argument cannot establish that this supernatural power is God (the original cause and sustainer of the world). Third, admitting miracles based on testimony is self-defeating for theism. Other non-theistic and counter-theistic religions (the Gnostics, for example, who hold the creator is malevolent) also have miraculous testimonies that have as much claim to belief as reported Theistic miracles. Fourth, Theists who build their faith on miracles have it backwards: miracles can never justify religious faith. Rather, it is religious faith that justifies a belief in miracles. Section x arrives at a skeptical conclusion: we cannot know if a miraculous violation of law of nature occurred, and even if we could know they did occur such events could never be the foundation for a belief system such as Theism. In Section xi, Hume attacks the second pillar of theism, natural theology or reason’s attempt to understand God unaided by revelation. Hume’s argument against the Design argument of natural theology occurs in two levels: the first level is given by â€Å"the friend who loves skeptical paradoxes† (xi, 132) who draws out the consequences of accepting the Design argument. Let us grant (the â€Å"friend† argues) that there is a Divine Architect who designed nature. Humans can infer the nature or essence of this Architect only by carefully studying the design or order in the Architect’s creation, Nature. Has the Divine Architect designed this world in a way that a moral agent (one who is benevolent and just) would have designed it? The numerous gratuitous evils we discover in our world that appear unnecessary and unavoidable block us from inferring that the designer of our world is a benevolent and just moral agent. The second level of argument against natural theology is given by Hume himself, in his own voice. Whereas the first level granted the Design argument and drew out the anti-theistic consequences of the Design argument; in the second level Hume argues that there are compelling reasons against granting the Design argument. Because we discover a design in our world does not allow us to infer the existence of a designing intelligence. To put this point in another way: this argument states that because there is a causal order in our world, there must have been an original cause, God. But our knowledge of causation is only through experienced constant conjunction between two species of objects. We expect objects of type x to bring about changes in objects of type y because we have experienced this many times in the past. However, the original cause, God, is unique. Therefore we cannot make the required jump which is required by the Design argument that because there is causal order or design in our world there must be an original cause or designer (xi, 148). Faith in the Enquiry The outcome of both Hume’s general account of â€Å"true metaphysics† as well as his particular arguments against miracles and natural theology are skeptical. On the basis of reason we have no grounds to assent to God. Thus, if one assents to God, this assent is based not on reason but on faith: Divinity or Theology, as it proves the existence of a Deity, is composed partly of reasonings concerning particular, partly concerning general facts. It has a foundation in reason, so far as it is supported by experience. But its best and most solid foundation is faith, and divine revelation. (xii, 165). To draw the implication here, since Hume has shown in section xi that God has no foundation in reason or experience, a belief in God is therefore founded totally on faith. Hume’s appeals to faith in the Enquiry should be taken seriously and not regarded as sarcastic asides. We must understand that for Hume faith is a domain entirely outside of natural reason (i.e., understanding): And whoever is moved by faith to assent to it (the Christian Religion) is conscious of a continued miracle in his own person, which subverts all the principles of his understanding, and gives him a determination to believe what is most contrary to custom and experience. (x, 131) Hume’s argument is intended to show that a belief in God is, literally, unreasonable: it is outside the domain of reason. Hume is not endorsing faith, but pointing out the status of belief in God. One who accepts Hume’s position on God in the Enquiry recognizes that a belief in God, since it is unsupported by reason, must float in mid-air as if by a sorcerer’s trick. Some theists will face up to this consequence of theistic belief. But for most theists, upon realizing that their belief in God in unsupported by reason, their faith will come crashing down. Conclusion The Enquiry carefully lays out a program of Mitigated Skepticism: all knowledge must be limited to experience and common life. In his general account of â€Å"true metaphysics† Hume shows that given the weakness and limits of human nature, knowledge of God is impossible.   Then in his particular arguments of x and xi, Hume shows that neither reports of miracles (revelation) nor natural theology (reason) provide support for the theistic God. Hume’s aim in the Enquiry was skeptical or â€Å"agnostic†. A century before T.H. Huxley coined the term, in the Enquiry Hume wrote the first agnostic manifesto (Mossner). Comparison and Contrast Hume’s conception of reason and the role it plays are widely disputed, but enough can be agreed upon to at this stage make the points, in particular, that a feeling- or passion-based reason does not allow non-instrumental freedom. Korsgaard notes that Hume discusses several varieties of reason, but says that â€Å"Hume seems to say simply that all reasoning that has a motivational influence must start from a passion, that being the only possible source of motivation, and must proceed to the means to satisfy that passion, that being the only operation of reason that transmits motivational force.† (1996, p.314).   Onora O’Neill argues that for Kant, there can be no such thing as a merely instrumental reasoner: â€Å"Not only does he deny that reason is or ought to be the slave of the passions; he actually insists that there are and can be no merely instrumental reasoners.† (1989, p.52) Before looking at the differences, it is as well to point out what Kant and Hume have in common with respect to reason and cause. Both are trying to grapple with a similar tension — between reason as the fount of what can be known with certainty as set against the metaphysical tangles into which it so often leads us (manifest, for example, in antinomies for Kant and discussions of the infinite divisibility of space and time for Hume). In the end, Kant resolves this tension with his account of the roles of the faculties, particularly in the construction of knowledge, with an a priori reason and a distinction between reason as acting regulatively with respect to cognition and constitutively in the moral realm. In this, he sees reason as an unconditionally active faculty. Hume, on the contrary, while acknowledging the tension, holds that ultimately it cannot be resolved, and that while we continue to debate issues such as whether or not reason has efficacy or dominance over the passions, we will to all intents and purposes remain in nature’s leading rein. And, for Hume, reason is passive, inert. For both thinkers, reason has a nature or tendency that drives our thinking with a certain inevitability. Kant, as we have seen, frequently refers to reason’s â€Å"nature,† while Hume describes it in terms of instinct. In the end, though, their differences far outweigh what they share. For Hume, reason is subordinate to experience in a way that for Kant it is not, indeed cannot be. And this is where the contrast gains particular relevance with respect to freedom. Simon Blackburn describes it this way: Reason can inform us of the facts of the case. †¦ And it can inform us which actions are likely to cause which upshots. But beyond that, it is silent. The imprudent person, or the person of unbridled lust, malevolence, or sloth is bad, of course. We may even call them unreasonable, but in a sense that Hume considers improper. For, more accurately, it is not their reason that is at fault, but their passions. (1998, p.239) Hume considers several species of reason, for example demonstrative versus probable reasoning, and it is difficult to describe and choose one that can be considered the Humean or â€Å"empiricist† counterpart to Kantian reason.   In addition to his view of reason in general, Hume is quite specific in ruling out the possibility that such reason can in any way ground morality, and so it clearly cannot ground the kind of freedom we find in Kant. Consider Kant’s famous confession, that it was Hume’s critique of causality that woke him from his â€Å"dogmatic slumber†. Now, it seems to me that the significance of this remark is completely lost if it is thought to license a reading of the Critique as a ‘refutation of Hume’, that the Analogies are attempting to restore the epistemic foundation for Newtonian physics that Hume’s critique of causality had undermined, etc. As Kant explicitly states, what was for him significant about Hume’s critique of causality is that it was the thin end of a very large wedge, and a gateway into a vastly greater problem. Kant, in short, begins his investigation by agreeing with Hume’s conclusions regarding causality, but then goes further, formulating the problem in its most general form and then determining its corollaries with absolute rigor. Kant attests to the legitimacy of Hume’s critique of causality – for him Hume has incontrovertibly demonstrated that an a priori concept cannot be derived from a series of particulars. Accepting Hume’s conclusion, Kant then raises the next question: what, then, is the origin of such concepts? The skeptical conclusions Hume draws are, Kant contends, the result of his having considered â€Å"not the whole of his problem, but a part, which by itself can give us no information†. In sum, rather than presenting an alternative program, we see that by his own admission Kant sought to elaborate on, to extend and probe in greater depth the same process of rational self-scrutiny that Hume had begun. His objective was not to refute but to develop Hume’s insight by grasping the entire problem of which Hume considered only a particular instance. What, then, is Hume’s problem considered in its most general form? Kant’s remarks indicate that, for him, the generalized version of Hume’s problem is the problem of the possibility of synthetic a priori judgments – i.e., Kant’s generalization of Hume’s problem is the question of the possibility of a scientific metaphysics. Since Hume had shown that a priori concepts do not originate in experience, for Kant the resolution of the problem requires demonstrating the way in which all such concepts â€Å"spring from the pure understanding† While Hume had discovered a mere instance of the way in which in â€Å"judgments of a certain kind we go beyond our concept of the object† (Kant, p.792), we are required to examine what is common to the entire range of   such judgments.   Hume did not grasp the general problem since â€Å"he did not systematically survey all the kinds of a priori synthesis of understanding† (795). It is such a systematic survey, and an attempt to identify what they all have in common in order to consider the general phenomenon of our employing concepts that exceed the empirical content provided a posteriori as a single problem. Kant tells us is nothing other than â€Å"the working out of Hume’s problem in its greatest possible expansion†. The following definitions are submitted accordingly: a) Hume’s insight: Judgments about causality employ a concept that claims universal validity. But a concept derived from a series of particular instances cannot be universally valid. b) Kant’s generalization of Hume’s insight: We employ a range of concepts that claim universal validity. Each concept moreover presupposes an idea of universality as such.   No such concepts can originate from the particular instances perceived by the senses. Therefore, none of our ideas claiming universal validity, nor the idea of universality as such, can be derived from the particular instances perceived by the senses. Thus, for Kant, the general problem instantiated by Hume’s critique of causality is the following: c) Hume’s Point: No conception of universality, qua conception of universality, can be derived from empirical input in general. Our synthetic a priori judgments thus employ concepts whose content cannot be derived from experience. But there is more to the problem than this for Kant, since his question concerns not only the concepts that such judgments employ, but the very possibility of our making such judgments. Kant’s formulation of his central question thus covers not only the concepts that are employed in the judgments, but also the judgment considered as an act, as a cognitive process and achievement. The question of the very possibility of synthetic a priori judgments thus encompasses not only the question of how it is possible that we could make a judgment that makes so much as a mere claim to universal validity (given Hume’s Point), but also the problem of our cognitive capability to execute the act that employs such concepts. The reader should expect, as Kant states in the Introduction, a â€Å"critique of our power of pure reason itself† (27). Kant’s transcendental deductions are employed in an attempt to derive the necessary conditions of possibility our cognitive constitution must independently fulfill in order to account for the mere capacity to employ universal concepts in judgments that we in fact possess. Since, by Hume’s Point, universal concepts by definition cannot be derived from empirical content, we must attempt to discern what is contributed to empirical experience and judgment by the pure principles of subjectivity, considered in utter isolation from empirical input as such. References Blackburn, Simon (1998). Ruling Passions A Theory of Practical Reasoning. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Guyer, Paul. (2000). Kant on Freedom, Law, and Happiness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hume, David. (1976). Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. Edited by LA. Selby-Bigge, revised by P.H. Nidditch. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason. Trans. Norman Kemp Smith. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1965. Korsgaard, Christine M. (1996). Creating the Kingdom of Ends. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mossner, Ernest Campbell. (1980). The Life of David Hume (2nd edition). Oxford: Clarendon Press,. Neiman, Susan. (1994) The Unity of Reason, New York: Oxford University Press. O’Neill, Onora. (1989). Constructions of Reason Explorations of Kant’s Practical Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [1]   â€Å"Reason, considered as the faculty of a certain logical form of knowledge, is the faculty of inferring, i.e., judging mediately (by subsumption of the condition of a possible judgment under the condition of a given judgment.)† (386); â€Å"Every syllogism is a mode of deducing knowledge from a principle.† (357) [2]   â€Å"If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any wise affected, is to be entitled sensibility, then the mind’s power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called the understanding.† (75)